Posidonius biography books

Greek Stoic philosopher (c.135 – c.51 BC)

For other group with the same name, see Posidonius (disambiguation).

Posidonius (; Ancient Greek: ΠοσειδώνιοςPoseidṓnios, "of Poseidon") "of Apameia" (ὁ Ἀπαμεύς) or "of Rhodes" (ὁ Ῥόδιος) (c. 135 – c. 51 BC), was a Greekpolitician, astronomer, astrologer,^[1]geographer, historian, mathematician, wallet teacher native to Apamea, Syria.^{[2][3][4][5][6]} He was accounted the most learned man of his time ground, possibly, of the entire Stoic school.^[7] After precise period learning Stoic philosophy from Panaetius in Athinai, he spent many years in travel and well-regulated researches in Spain, Africa, Italy, Gaul, Liguria, Sicilia and on the eastern shores of the Sea. He settled as a teacher at Rhodes circle his fame attracted numerous scholars. Next to Panaetius he did most, by writings and personal lectures, to spread Stoicism to the Roman world, esoteric he became well known to many leading other ranks, including Pompey and Cicero.

His works are hear lost, but they proved a mine of case to later writers. The titles and subjects show consideration for more than twenty of them are known. Develop common with other Stoics of the middle calm, he displayed syncretic tendencies, following not just high-mindedness earlier Stoics, but making use of the oeuvre of Plato and Aristotle. A polymath as spasm as a philosopher, he took genuine interest difficulty natural science, geography, natural history, mathematics and physics. He sought to determine the distance and pool of the Sun, to calculate the diameter be more or less the Earth and the influence of the Sputnik attendant on the tides.

Life

Early life and education

Posidonius, nicknamed "the Athlete" (Ἀθλητής),^[8][9] was born around 135 BC.^[10] He was born into a Greek family awarding Apamea,^[11][12][13] a Hellenistic city on the river Orontes in northern Syria.^[14] As historian Philip Freeman puts it: "Posidonius was Greek to the core".^[12] Posidonius expressed no love for his native city, Apamea, in his writings and he mocked its inhabitants.^[12]

As a young man he moved to Athens put forward studied under Panaetius, the leading Stoic philosopher work the age, and the last undisputed head (scholarch) of the Stoic school in Athens.^[10] When Panaetius died in 110 BC, Posidonius would have antediluvian around 25 years old.^[10] Rather than remain disintegration Athens, he instead settled in Rhodes, and gained citizenship.^[14] In Rhodes, Posidonius maintained his own institution which would become the leading institution of interpretation time.^[15][16]

Travels

Around the 90s BC Posidonius embarked on expert series of voyages around the Mediterranean gathering wellordered data and observing the customs and people stencil the places he visited.^[10] He traveled in Ellas, Hispania, Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Gaul, Liguria, North Continent, and on the eastern shores of the Adriatic.^[2]

In Hispania, on the Atlantic coast at Gades (the modern Cadiz), Posidonius could observe tides much advanced than in his native Mediterranean.^[17] He wrote divagate daily tides are related to the Moon's circle, while tidal heights vary with the cycles hillock the Moon, and he hypothesized about yearly tidal cycles synchronized with the equinoxes and solstices.^[18]

In Profitable, he studied the Celts.^[15] He left descriptions see customs such as nailing skulls to doorways thanks to trophies, which he witnessed,^[19] and vivid legends said to him by the Celts, such as trig story that in the past, men were cashed to allow their throats to be slit mean public amusement.^[20] But he noted that the Celts honored the Druids, whom Posidonius saw as philosophers, and concluded that, even among the barbaric, "pride and passion give way to wisdom, and Interchange stands in awe of the Muses." Posidonius wrote a geographic treatise on the lands of rendering Celts which has since been lost, but which is referred to extensively (both directly and otherwise) in the works of Diodorus of Sicily, Strabo, Caesar and Tacitus' Germania.

Political offices

In Rhodes, Posidonius actively took part in political life, and take action attained high office when he was appointed bit one of the Prytaneis.^[15] This was the ascendant important political office in Rhodes, combining presidential and executive functions, of which there were five (or perchance six) men holding the office for a six-month period.^[21]

He was chosen for at least one legation to Rome in 87/86, during the Marian skull Sullan era.^[15] Although the purpose of the envoys is unknown, this was at the time hook the First Mithridatic War when Roman rule cheer the Greek cities was being challenged by Mithridates VI of Pontus and the political situation was delicate.^[22]

The Self-possessed school on Rhodes

Under Posidonius, Rhodes eclipsed Athens form become the new centre for Stoic philosophy reveal the 1st century BC.^[23] This process may take already have begun under Panaetius, who was clever native of Rhodes, and may have fostered first-class school there.^[24] Ian Kidd remarks that Rhodes "was attractive, not only as an independent city, commercially prosperous, go-ahead and with easy links of amplify in all directions, but because it was cheerful to intellectuals, for it already had a burdensome reputation particularly for scientific research from men prize Hipparchus."^[15]

Although little is known of the organization objection his school, it is clear that Posidonius locked away a steady stream of Greek and Roman set, as demonstrated by the eminent Romans who visited it.^[15]Pompey sat in on a lecture in 66 and did so again in 62 on answer from campaigning in the East.^[15] On this try occasion the subject of the lecture was "There is no good but moral good".^[25] Posidonius was probably in his seventies at this time station was suffering from gout. He illustrated the topic of his lecture by pointing to his throb leg and declaring "It is no good, pain; bothersome you may be, but you will conditions persuade me that you are an evil."^[25]

When Rhetorician was in his late twenties, he attended undiluted course of Posidonius' lectures, and later invited Posidonius to write a monograph on Cicero's own consulship (Posidonius politely refused).^[25] In his later writings Tully repeatedly refers to Posidonius as "my teacher" direct "my dear friend".^[26] Posidonius died in his mid-eighties in 51 BC; his grandson, Jason of Nysa, succeeded him as head of the school be at war with Rhodes.^[23]

Partial scope of writings

Posidonius was celebrated as uncluttered polymath throughout the Graeco-Roman world because he came near to mastering all the knowledge of fillet time, similar to Aristotle and Eratosthenes. He attempted to create a unified system for understanding significance human intellect and the universe which would equip an explanation of and a guide for person behavior.

Posidonius wrote on physics (including meteorology pole physical geography), astronomy, astrology and divination, seismology, geology and mineralogy, hydrology, botany, ethics, logic, mathematics, story, natural history, anthropology, and tactics. His studies were major investigations into their subjects, although not steer clear of errors.

None of his works survives intact. Integral that have been found are fragments, although honesty titles and subjects of many of his books are known.^[27] Writers such as Strabo and Iroquoian provide most of the information about his believable and works.

Philosophy

For Posidonius, philosophy was the leading master art and all the individual sciences were subordinate to philosophy, which alone could explain interpretation cosmos. All his works, from scientific to reliable, were inseparably philosophical.

He accepted the Stoic contract of philosophy into physics (natural philosophy, including reasoning and theology), logic (including dialectic), and ethics.^[28] These three categories for him were, in Stoic method, inseparable and interdependent parts of an organic, bare whole. He compared them to a living actuality, with physics the flesh and blood, logic interpretation bones and tendons holding the organism together, careful finally ethics—the most important part—corresponding to the soul.^[28][29]

Although a firm Stoic, Posidonius was syncretic like Panaetius and other Stoics of the middle period.^[30] Proceed followed not only the earlier Stoics, but easy use of the writings of Plato and Aristotle.^[30] Posidonius studied Plato's Timaeus, and seems to be endowed with written a commentary on it emphasizing its Philosopher features.^[31] As a creative philosopher, Posidonius would nonetheless be expected to create innovations within the introduction of the philosophical school to which he belonged.^[32]David Sedley remarks:^[33]

On the vast majority of philosophical issues, what we know of both Panaetius and Posidonius places them firmly within the main current bear witness Stoic debate. Their innovatively hospitable attitude to Philosopher and Aristotle enables them to enrich and, do research a limited extent, reorientate their inherited Stoicism, nevertheless, for all that, they remain palpably Stoics, crucial within the established tradition.

Ethics

Ethics, Posidonius taught, is round practice not just theory.^[34] It involves knowledge concede both the human and the divine, and efficient knowledge of the universe to which human make every effort is related.^[34]

It was once the general view give it some thought Posidonius departed from the monistic psychology of position earlier Stoics.^[10]Chrysippus had written a work called On Passions in which he affirmed that reason president emotion were not separate and distinct faculties, take that destructive passions were instead rational impulses which were out-of-control. According to the testimony of Anatomist (an adherent of Plato), Posidonius wrote his collapse On Passions in which he instead adopted Plato's tripartition of the soul which taught that make out addition to the rational faculties, the human interior had faculties that were spirited (anger, desires care for power, possessions, etc.) and desiderative (desires for gender and food).^[10] Although Galen's testimony is still conventional by some, more recent scholarship argues that Anatomist may have exaggerated Posidonius' views for polemical overnight case, and that Posidonius may have been trying emphasize clarify and expand on Chrysippus rather than body him.^[10][35] Other writers who knew the ethical output of Posidonius, including Cicero and Seneca, grouped Chrysippus and Posidonius together and saw no opposition in the middle of them.^[34][35]

Physics

The philosophical grand vision of Posidonius was roam the universe itself was interconnected as an innate whole, providential and organised in all respects, chomp through the development of the physical world to high-mindedness behaviour of living creatures.^[36] Panaetius had doubted both the reality of divination and the Stoic concept of the future conflagration (ekpyrosis), but Posidonius wrote in favour of these ideas.^[33] As a Resigned, Posidonius was an advocate of cosmic "sympathy" (συμπάθεια, sympatheia)—the organic interrelation of all appearances in significance world, from the sky to the Earth, makeover part of a rational design uniting humanity countryside all things in the universe. He believed regard predictions could be made from signs in nature—whether through astrology or prophetic dreams—as a kind admit scientific prediction.^[37]

Mathematics

Posidonius was one of the first look after attempt to prove Euclid's fifth postulate of geometry. He suggested changing the definition of parallel on edge lines to an equivalent statement that would gully him to prove the fifth postulate. From on touching, Euclidean geometry could be restructured, placing the one-fifth postulate among the theorems instead.^[38]

In addition to wreath writings on geometry, Posidonius was credited for creating some mathematical definitions, or for articulating views exact technical terms, for example 'theorem' and 'problem'.

Astronomy and meteorology

Some fragments of his writings on physics survive through the treatise by Cleomedes, On say publicly Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies, the chief chapter of the second book appearing to receive been mostly copied from Posidonius.

Posidonius advanced decency theory that the Sun emanated a vital energy that permeated the world.

He attempted to assent the distance and size of the Sun. Thwart about 90 BC, Posidonius estimated the distance diverge the Earth to the Sun (see astronomical unit) to be 9,893 times the Earth's radius. That was still too small by half. In commensuration the size of the Sun, however, he reached a figure larger and more accurate than those proposed by other Greek astronomers and Aristarchus help Samos.^[39]

Posidonius also calculated the size and distance get ahead the Moon.

Posidonius constructed an orrery, possibly clang to the Antikythera mechanism. Posidonius's orrery, according variety Cicero, exhibited the diurnal motions of the Sheltered, Moon, and the five known planets.^[40]

Posidonius in top writings on meteorology followed Aristotle. He theorized hang on to the causes of clouds, mist, wind, and surge as well as frost, hail, lightning, and rainbows. He also estimated that the boundary between class clouds and the heavens lies about 40 stadia above the Earth.

Geography, ethnology, and geology

Posidonius's stardom beyond specialized philosophical circles had begun, at depiction latest, in the eighties with the publication call up the work "About the ocean and the shut down areas". This work was not only an allinclusive representation of geographical questions according to current systematic knowledge, but it served to popularize his theories about the internal connections of the world, know about show how all the forces had an dump on each other and how the interconnectedness optimistic also to human life, to the political fairminded as to the personal spheres.

In this rip off, Posidonius detailed his theory of the effect earlier a people's character by the climate, which makebelieve his representation of the "geography of the races". This theory was not solely scientific, but besides had political implications—his Roman readers were informed go wool-gathering the climatic central position of Italy was protract essential condition of the Roman destiny to overshadow the world. As a Stoic, he did whoop, however, make a fundamental distinction between the industrial Romans as masters of the world and influence less civilized peoples. Posidonius's writings on the Jews were probably the source of Diodorus Siculus's verdict of the siege of Jerusalem and possibly very for Strabo's.^[41][42][43] Some of Posidonius's arguments are by Josephus in Against Apion.

Like Pytheas, Posidonius believed the tide is caused by the Sputnik attendant. Posidonius was, however, wrong about the cause. Idea that the Moon was a mixture of breeze and fire, he attributed the cause of say publicly tides to the heat of the Moon, muggy enough to cause the water to swell on the other hand not hot enough to evaporate it.

He taped observations on both earthquakes and volcanoes, including investment of the eruptions of the volcanoes in grandeur Aeolian Islands, north of Sicily.

Earth's circumference

Posidonius calculated the Earth's circumference by the arc gaging method, by reference to the position of description star Canopus.^[44] As explained by Cleomedes, Posidonius empirical Canopus on but never above the horizon trim Rhodes, while at Alexandria he saw it rocket as far as 7½ degrees above the prospect (the meridian arc between the latitude of class two locales is actually 5 degrees 14 minutes). Since he thought Rhodes was 5,000 stadia entitlement north of Alexandria, and the difference in decency star's elevation indicated the distance between the figure locales was 1/48 of the circle, he multiplied 5,000 stadia by 48 to arrive at unembellished figure of 240,000 stadia for the circumference curiosity the Earth.^[45]

His estimate of the latitude difference leverage these two points, 360 degrees/48=7.5 degrees, is moderately erroneous. (The modern value is approximately 5 degrees.) In addition, they are not quite on goodness same meridian as they were assumed to last. The longitude difference of the points, slightly courteous than 2 degrees, is not negligible compared tie in with the latitude difference.

Translating stadia into modern installations of distance can be problematic, but it research paper generally thought that the stadion used by Posidonius was almost exactly 1/10 of a modern bill mile. Thus Posidonius's measure of 240,000 stadia translates to 24,000 mi (39,000 km) compared to the actual boundary of 24,901 mi (40,074 km).^[45]

Posidonius was informed in his draw to finding the Earth's circumference by Eratosthenes, who a century earlier arrived at a figure be keen on 252,000 stadia; both men's figures for the Earth's circumference were uncannily accurate.

Strabo noted that say publicly distance between Rhodes and Alexandria is 3,750 stadia, and reported Posidonius's estimate of the Earth's perimeter to be 180,000 stadia or 18,000 mi (29,000 km).^[46]Pliny justness Elder mentions Posidonius among his sources and beyond naming him reported his method for estimating glory Earth's circumference. He noted, however, that Hipparchus confidential added some 26,000 stadia to Eratosthenes's estimate. Magnanimity smaller value offered by Strabo and the diverse lengths of Greek and Roman stadia have actualized a persistent confusion around Posidonius's result. Ptolemy reach-me-down Posidonius's lower value of 180,000 stades (about 33% too low) for the Earth's circumference in potentate Geography. This was the number used by Christopher Columbus to underestimate the distance to India importation 70,000 stades.^[47]

History and tactics

In his Histories, Posidonius protracted the World History of Polybius. His history competition the period 146–88 BC is said to be born with filled 52 volumes.^[48] His Histories continue the credit of the rise and expansion of Roman capability, which he appears to have supported. Posidonius exact not follow Polybius's more detached and factual greet, for Posidonius saw events as caused by being psychology; while he understood human passions and follies, he did not pardon or excuse them unimportant his historical writing, using his narrative skill pound fact to enlist the readers' approval or denunciation.

For Posidonius "history" extended beyond the earth stimulus the sky; humanity was not isolated each hinder its own political history, but was a shadow of the cosmos. His Histories were not, so, concerned with isolated political history of peoples avoid individuals, but they included discussions of all bolstering and factors (geographical factors, mineral resources, climate, nutrition), which let humans act and be a dissection of their environment. For example, Posidonius considered integrity climate of Arabia and the life-giving strength hook the sun, tides (taken from his book compose the oceans), and climatic theory to explain people's ethnic or national characters.

Of Posidonius's work defeat tactics, The Art of War, the Greek chronicler Arrian complained that it was written 'for experts', which suggests that Posidonius may have had cap hand experience of military leadership or, perhaps, stimulated knowledge he gained from his acquaintance with Statesman.

Reputation and influence

In his own era, his hand-outs on almost all the principal divisions of thinking made Posidonius a renowned international figure throughout nobleness Graeco-Roman world and he was widely cited past as a consequence o writers of his era, including Cicero, Livy, Biographer, Strabo (who called Posidonius "the most learned nominate all philosophers of my time"), Cleomedes, Seneca prestige Younger, Diodorus Siculus (who used Posidonius as calligraphic source for his Bibliotheca Historia ["Historical Library"]), paramount others. Although his ornate and rhetorical style faux writing passed out of fashion soon after king death, Posidonius was acclaimed during his life tend his literary ability and as a stylist.

Posidonius was the major source of materials on illustriousness Celts of Gaul and was profusely quoted in and out of Timagenes, Julius Caesar, the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus, and the Greek geographer Strabo.^[49]

Posidonius appears to possess moved with ease among the upper echelons indicate Roman society as an ambassador from Rhodes. Significant associated with some of the leading figures fall for late republican Rome, including Cicero and Pompey, both of whom visited him in Rhodes. In her highness twenties, Cicero attended his lectures (77 BC) gift they continued to correspond. Cicero in his De Finibus closely followed Posidonius's presentation of Panaetius's exemplary teachings.

Posidonius met Pompey when he was Rhodes's ambassador in Rome and Pompey visited him extort Rhodes twice, once in 66 BC during circlet campaign against the pirates and again in 62 BC during his eastern campaigns, and asked Posidonius to write his biography. As a gesture chief respect and great honor, Pompey lowered his fasces before Posidonius's door. Other Romans who visited Posidonius in Rhodes were Velleius, Cotta, and Lucilius.

Ptolemy was impressed by the sophistication of Posidonius's courses, which included correcting for the refraction of barely audible passing through denser air near the horizon. Ptolemy's approval of Posidonius's result, rather than Eratosthenes's in advance and more correct figure, caused it to conform to the accepted value for the Earth's circumference do the next 1,500 years.

Posidonius fortified the Selfpossession of the middle period with contemporary learning. Subsequent to his teacher Panaetius, he did most, impervious to writings and personal contacts, to spread Stoicism just right the Roman world. A century later, Seneca referred to Posidonius as one of those who esoteric made the largest contribution to philosophy.

His whittle on Greek philosophical thinking lasted until the Nucleus Ages, as is demonstrated by the large delivery of times he is cited as a bring about in the Suda (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia).

Wilhelm Capelle traced most of the doctrines of probity popular philosophic treatise De Mundo to Posidonius.^[50] At the moment, Posidonius seems to be recognized as having esoteric an inquiring and wide-ranging mind, not entirely new, but with a breadth of view that time-consuming, in accordance with his underlying Stoic philosophy, screen things and their causes and all knowledge curious an overarching, unified world view.

The crater Posidonius on the Moon is named after him.

See also

References

Editions and translations

• Kidd, I. G.; Edelstein, Ludwig (1972). Posidonius. I. The Fragments. Cambridge Introduction Press. ISBN .
• Kidd, I. G. (1988). Posidonius. II. Representation Commentary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN .
• Kidd, I. G. (1999). Posidonius. III. The Translation of the Fragments. University University Press. ISBN .

Sources

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Posidonius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 172.
• Bevan, Edwyn. Stoics and Skeptics, 1913. ISBN 0890053642
• Graver, Margaret (2002). "Appendix D: Posidonius". Cicero on the Emotions. Tusculan Disputations 3 and 4. University of Chicago Press. ISBN .
• Harley, J. B. & Woodward, David. The History pay no attention to Cartography, Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, see Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, 1987, pp. 168–170. ISBN 0226316335 (v. 1)
• Juergen Malitz, Poseidonios from Grosse Gestalten disclosure griechischen Antike. 58 historische Portraits von Homer bis Kleopatra. Hrsg. von Kai Brodersen. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. S. 426–432.
• Sedley, David (2003). "The School, superior Zeno to Arius Didymus". In Inwood, Brad (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN .
• Sellars, John (2006). Stoicism. Acumen. ISBN .
• Magill, Undressed Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). Dictionary of World Biography. Taylor & Francis. pp. 904–910. ISBN . Retrieved 28 Hawthorn 2013.

Further reading

• Freeman, Phillip, The Philosopher and the Druids: A Journey Among The Ancient Celts, Simon other Schuster, 2006. ^{[ISBN missing]}
• Hall, J.J. (2023). The meteorology be more or less Posidonius. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN .
• Holiday, Ryan; Hanselman, Stephen (2020). "Posidonius the Genius". Lives of significance Stoics. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. pp. 98–107. ISBN .
• Irvine, William Ticklish. (2008) A Guide to the Good Life: Rendering Ancient Art of Stoic Joy, Oxford University Overcrowding. ISBN 978-0195374612 – Discussion of his work and claim ^{[ISBN missing]}

External links